Chapter 1
Summary
The author explores the life of B. F. Skinner, both his academic work and his personal philosophy. First, Skinner’s early life is and path into psychology is examined. Skinner’s experiments and findings are then revealed. Skinner was a pioneer in radical behavioralism, studying the impulses that drive behavior. Inspired by Pavlov’s dogs, Skinner pushed the level to at which he could train responses. He was one of the first to have quantitative results concerning the training of behaviors. His major discoveries revealed that a higher response is felt to positive reward than negative. Additionally, he found that irregular positive rewards were the hardest schemes to break. Skinner’s political and personal life is widely exaggerated and fictionalized. After meeting with Skinner’s children and visiting his home, the author paints him as a gentle and loving person.
Discussion
This was a fascinating look at the life of a brilliant and necessary psychologist. I enjoyed the authors ability to present facts while still engage in a story line that was provoking of the mind. I find Skinner’s discoveries about irregular rewards to be intriguing. Much of human behavior seems explainable by this. I also find it odd that positive rewards are better than negative reinforcement. It makes me wonder if I could write better machine learning programs with positive rewards, instead of negative reinforcement. Seems like it would be the same either way.
Chapter 2
Summary
Stanley Milgram attempted to study obedience through an elaborate experiment which was staged as giving insight on learning techniques. Participants were asked to shock another participant with higher and higher voltages, even as the other demonstrated clear signs of pain. Sixty-five percent of participants were willing to shock the other to death. Participants were urged by the researcher to continue shocking the other, even when uneasy about it. Only 35% defied the researcher’s request and terminated the study early.
Discussion
I think Milgram’s experiments provide more insight about perceived expertise rather than obedience to authority. When we enter unfamiliar situations, like a psychological experiment, we look for guidance wherever we can get it. Milgram, with his official lab coat and all-knowing style probably seemed very trustworthy or at least to be an escape route. I believe that participants became so uncomfortable that they just wanted out, following Milgram’s commands was the easiest way. Furthermore, I propose that someone with say a knowledge about electricity, would be more likely to defy Milgram, as they would understand the lethal nature of the dose they were administering.
Chapter 3
Summary
In the 1970s, David Rosenhan engaged in an experiment to test the accuracy of psychiatric diagnoses. By sending eight people to eight different mental hospitals with the complaint of hearing a voice saying “Thud” he set out to prove psychiatry as over diagnosing. All eight of his patients were admitted and later released in a state of remission. In another experiment he told a psychiatric ER that he would send them fake patients, they claimed to be able to tell. At the end, the ER denied 41 patients as being fake, Rosenhan had sent none. The author attempts the same task, but fails to be admitted and is only prescribed light antipsychotics and antidepressants.
Discussion
Rosenhan’s experiment, in my opinion, was poorly designed. When a person appears claiming to hear voices, they should receive psychiatric care -- regardless of their statements following these claims. Additionally, patients were released in state of “remission” because to say they were cured would be a legal catastrophe for the physician, should any future problems occur. The author being prescribed a light antipsychotic and antidepressant is completely acceptable. These medications are known to mitigate the symptoms claimed, and do not cause major harm if the condition is false. The author should have been admitted for observation, unfortunately monetary reasons probably prevented this.
Chapter 4
Summary
Darley and Latane performed an experiment in which subjects could hear but not see a person having a seizure in an adjacent room. They also either knew they were the only person who could hear this, or that they and several others could hear the events. When more poeple were present, the response rate for seeking help was about 30%, with only one person it was closer to 80%. This leads to the idea of diffusion of responsibility. Another study looked at social cueing, by filling a room with smoke and having actors act as though nothing was wrong. The one subject always stayed in the room.
Discussion
I really admire the smoke experiment and find it to be a good setup and demonstration of social cueing. The seizure experiment leaves me with a few questions though. Most importantly, did the subjects think that experimenters were monitoring the activities? If so, then they probably expected them to take care of the seizure. I will acknowledge that after six minutes it should have been obvious to participants that the seizure was not being taken care of.
Chapter 5
Summary
Leon Festinger investigated and made popular the idea of cognitive dissonance. This was illustrated in an experiment where people were either given $20 or $1 to lie. Those who took the smaller payment were more likely to believe or justify the lie. Those with the larger payment admitted to lying just for the money. The author explores several cases both support and not supporting this theory.
Discussion
The idea of cognitive dissonance has been the subject of many studies and trials. It seems to make sense for humans to seek out the least amount of dissonance, though the theory doesn’t seem to hold true for everyone.
Chapter 6 - Monkey Love
Summary
Harlow was interested in studying attachment theories in monkeys. He performed several experiments that involved separating monkeys from their mothers and replacing the mother with a fake mother. Harlow's studies revealed certain principles at play in the concept of "love". These principles included touching, playing and motions. His results are probably responsible for a change in style of mothering among humans.
Discussion
More experiments which could not be performed today, though very interesting. I felt like Harlow became consumed with his work and eventually could not distinguish his research questions or motivations. Nevertheless, these studies are probably responsible for a change in parenting styles.
Chapter 7 - Rat Pack
Summary
Bruce Alexander and Robert Coambs conducted a study which seemed to suggest that drug addiction was a product of environment, not a physiological response. In the experiment mice which are left in premium conditions reject and even dose off of morphine, while mice in caged conditions do not. Opponents argue that drug addiction has chemical roots, manifested in preventing the body’s regular production of endorphins, dopamine and serotonin.
Discussion
Drugs definitely elicit a chemical response from the body. The real question is whether that response is preferable to a satisfying lifestyle where all needs are met. Does the intake of chemicals which cause mass production of certain neurotransmitters prevent our bodies from ever achieving normal production again? I’m not sure.
Chapter 8 - Lost in the Mall
Summary
Elizabeth Loftus was interested in studying the concept of a false memory. It was observed through experimentation that people would start to recall details of memories they never experienced if sufficiently prompted. This led to the ultimate theory that imagination often fills in the gaps while memory serves a general indicator of past events. If a person can be convinced they experienced something, the mind will create the details.
Discussion
I think these experiments reveal the story-telling nature of humans. For some reason we understand and enjoy narratives very much, so much so that we are able to create them very easily-- even if it didn't really happen. Overall it was somewhat discouraging to realize how easily the human mind can be persuaded to create false recollections.
Chapter 9 - Memory Inc.
Summary
Through the removal of the hippocampus (for stopping seizures) it was determined that short term memory is focused in a particular section of the brain, while long term memory is distributed. This fact created the motivation for studies like the Sea Slug experiments, which focused more heavily on single neurons and their purposes. The chapter also sheds some light on the process or learning and its speed.
Discussion
This chapter reminds me how truly fascinating the brain is. It seems that we know so little about how it functions even today. The use of particular drugs to increase memory ability seems very promising and could be very helpful in aiding human evolution further. Overall we have just started to manipulate the brain, there is much ground to be covered
Chapter 10 - Chipped
Summary
Antonio Moniz is considered to be the founder of psychosurgery, a surgical method for altering psychological characteristics of a person. Though early attempts at these types of surgies were misguided and harmful there have been increase in ability and results caused by them. For patients with chronic psychological issues these surgeries may prove very helpful.
Commentary
An interesting concept which doesn't sit well with me quite yet. These practices raise many ethical questions in my mind about choosing correct treatments for illnesses. Though I think psychosurgery will be possible on an accurate and helpful level one day, I'm not convinced we are there yet.
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